Contabo vs Gandi.net: guide for 2024

Contabo vs Gandi.net: Final verdict


Comparing Contabo and Gandi.net, both provide strong hosting solutions but cater to slightly different audiences with distinct strengths and weaknesses.


  • Gandi.net (Overall grade: 7.9)

    is an excellent choice for users looking for simplicity, automatic installations, and automated setup processes for WordPress and other applications. It offers shared hosting, WordPress hosting, and ecommerce hosting, making it particularly suited for bloggers, small to medium-sized businesses, and non-technical users. Gandi.net also excels in offering unlimited SSL certificates, multilingual support, and an intuitive user interface. However, its limited scalability options and fewer global data centers compared to Contabo might not meet the needs of larger businesses or high-traffic websites.

  • Contabo (Overall grade: 7.6)

    impresses with its powerful VPS and dedicated hosting solutions, backed by AMD EPYC processors and various SSD storage options. It shines in performance, scalability, and extensive global presence with multiple data centers. Contabo’s services are suitable for high-traffic websites and multimedia content due to its high resources allocation and advanced infrastructure. However, it lags in customer support responsiveness and lacks shared and WordPress hosting options, which can be a downside for users seeking basic, straightforward setups. Overall, Contabo is ideal for users who need flexibility, high performance, and robust management features.

Overall grade:7.6

Overall grade:7.9

Uptime and Availability 9.4 9.4
Hosting Performance 8.2 5.8
Hosting Security 8.7 8.3
Price 8.3 8.5
Hosting Features 6.6 6.2
Ease Of Setup 7.4 7.9
User Management 5.0 8.3
Customer Support 7.1 8.8
User feedback 3.3/5 3.7/5

Hosting types offered

Both platforms provide a variety of hosting types, each designed to meet the different needs of users.

Shared hosting
Cloud hosting
WordPress hosting
Ecommerce hosting
VPS hosting
Dedicated hosting

Although both offer a variety of hosting plans tailored to different needs, in certain cases, one platform may prove to be more suitable.

WordPress
Gandi.net: Offers automated WordPress installation and easy management.

Ecommerce
Gandi.net: Offers automated Prestashop installation, making it easier to set up ecommerce websites.

Agencies
Tie: Both offer flexible plans that can adapt to the needs of agencies.

High-traffic websites
Contabo: Provides dedicated servers with scalable resources for handling high traffic.

Multimedia websites
Contabo: Provides GPU options for high-performance multimedia tasks.

Detailed comparison

Uptime and availability

Evaluates the average uptime statistics, uptime guarantee and overall availability of the hosting
provider

Score Components:

  • Uptime percentage (30%): evaluates the uptime statistics in given period of time
  • Uptime guarantee (20%): Assesses if the platform offers an uptime guarantee and
    whether the actual uptime matches the promised guarantee.
  • General performance (25%): Evaluates how fast is the average response time and overall
    it’s stability.
  • Responsiveness (10%): Adaptability to different devices and screen sizes.
  • Availability (25%): Reflects the total downtime and number of outages.

9.4
9.4

🏆 Winner Contabo: Offering superior uptime and extensive server performance, Contabo is a leader in reliable hosting.

Contabo boasts a 99.996% uptime guarantee, which exceeds many industry standards, ensuring minimal downtime. Their servers are powered by AMD EPYC 7282 processors and offer a range of storage options, making them fast and responsive. The 32TB of included traffic and high-speed connection further enhance their performance reliability. Contabo also has several data centers globally, ensuring widespread availability and 24/7 security.

Gandi.net also offers high reliability with a 99.95% uptime guarantee and perfect test results. They provide a compensation plan for exceeded downtime, which adds a level of user assurance. Data centers in diverse locations like France, Luxembourg, Taipei, and San Francisco facilitate global service. Their customer support is available round-the-clock, in multiple languages, catering to a broad audience.

Which one has better hosting performance?

Evaluates the platforms hosting speed and performance tools
Score Components:

  • Hosting speed (30%): This includes SSD quality, Load times, PageSpeed score ranges,
    additional information on website speed, built-in plugins for performance enhancement, available caching
    methods, and CPU/RAM options
  • CDN (20%): Considers whether CDN is available or not, whether it’s free or paid, and
    the quality of the CDN service
  • Available data centers (30%): Evaluates the number of data centers and their locations
    globally.
  • Scalibility (20%): Looks at whether elastic scaling is available, the process required
    to scale (manual upgrade vs. automatic scaling), the presence of dedicated servers, and the costs
    associated with scaling.

8.2
5.8

🏆 Winner: Contabo: High-performance hosting with extensive global reach and comprehensive security features.

Contabo offers top-tier speed and performance with its AMD EPYC 7282 16-core processors, providing fast and efficient website performance. It features SSD and Gen 4 PCIe NVMe SSD storage options, leading to faster load times and better PageSpeed scores. It includes free DDoS protection and options for upgradeable connection speeds up to 10Gbit/s. Contabo has multiple data centers across the US, UK, Germany, and Singapore. Gandi.net, while offering reliable performance with dedicated Linux container resources and Varnish Cache, lags in comparison with fewer global data centers located only in France and Luxembourg. Gandi provides built-in caching methods, but lacks the advanced SSD storage found in Contabo.

Website speed

Contabo’s advanced SSD options and high-end processors ensure faster load times, enhancing overall website performance. With an impressive uptime guarantee of 99.996% and robust DDoS protection, websites remain consistently responsive. Gandi.net also offers reliable website speed through dedicated LXC resources and Varnish Cache, but it can’t match the speed enhancements provided by Contabo’s infrastructure. Contabo’s edge in connection speed options further solidifies its advantage.

Scalability

Contabo allows seamless VPS package upgrades without sacrificing availability or uptime, making it an easy choice for scaling. It also provides private networking and additional IP configurations for businesses needing robust scaling options. Gandi.net offers scalable plans, but exact details on the flexibility of upgrading aren’t specified. While Gandi.net offers Hosting Booster for peak traffic, it is limited to Pro and Business plans and its frequency is restricted to once every 30 days. The cost of scaling with Gandi.net is straightforward with plan-based pricing, but the scalability with Contabo shines due to more flexible and responsive options.

Which one has better security features?

Reflects the platforms security measures, data privacy, backups and adherence to legal
and regulatory requirements

Score Components:

  • Technical security measures (40%): This includes encryption, firewalls, DDoS
    protection, secure configurations, server monitoring, access control and availability of security addons
    (e.g Sitelock security).
  • Operational security measures (30%): Encompasses data privacy, backups and data
    redundancy.
  • Compliance and certifications (20%): Adherence to legal and regulatory requirements
    (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA) and possession of certifications (e.g., ISO 27001, SOC 2).
  • Business and reliability (10%): Factors in the provider’s reputation, uptime
    guarantees, and customer support.

8.7
8.3

🏆 Winner Contabo: Offers extensive security measures and flexible infrastructure thus ensuring a highly secure hosting environment.

Both Contabo and Gandi.net have notable differences in their approaches to technical and operational security, as well as in their compliance with regulations.

Technical security measures:

Contabo provides always-on DDoS protection, scanning for malware with Imunify AV, and Two-Factor Authentication (2FA) for all accounts. It allows customization of PHP versions, which helps in maintaining security by using versions with the latest patches. Gandi.net offers free SSL certificates, PHP 8.2, and uses Anycast DNS with DNSSEC to provide robust DNS infrastructure protection. It also supports multiple types of SSL certificates to cater to different security needs. While both providers deliver robust security measures, Contabo’s DDoS protection and malware scanning tools give it an edge.

Operational security measures:

Both companies have measures in place to ensure the physical security of their data centers. Contabo uses 24/7 CCTV surveillance and magnetic card access to its facilities, along with roles-based access controls. Gandi.net follows strict GDPR guidelines by hosting data in European data centers and uses automatic snapshots for easy recovery. Additionally, both hosts offer Two-Factor Authentication to enhance account security. Given Contabo’s broader range of monitoring tools and controlled facility access, it provides more comprehensive operational security.

Compliance and certifications:

Contabo and Gandi.net both comply with GDPR regulations, ensuring data protection and privacy. Additionally, Contabo suggests it supports PCI compliance through industry-standard security measures. Gandi.net also hints at PCI compliance by offering professional and business SSL certificates. While both providers comply with GDPR, Contabo’s infrastructure aligns more broadly with various compliance standards, giving it a slight advantage.


SSL certificate

Yes

Yes

Additional security features

Two-Factor Authentication, DDoS protection, Imunify AV

Anycast DNS with DNSSEC, Two-Factor Authentication, Anti-DDoS Solutions

PHP versions

Customizable

PHP 8.2

GDPR compliance

Yes

Yes

HIPAA compliance

Not specified

Not specified

PCI compliance

Suggested through industry standards

Implied through SSL certificates

Hosting features

Looks at the features offered by hosting platforms
Score Components:

  • Domains (20%): Assesses the availability of a free domain, domain purchase options, and
    pricing
  • Email (15%): Considers if the provider offers full email hosting, or is reselling
    third-party service, and if the email is only transactional or not
  • Website builder (15%): Checks if website builder is available, and it’s user
    friendliness and overall the level of customization allowed.
  • Staging environment (20%): Determines if a staging environment is available, allowing
    for testing changes before going live.
  • FTP & SFTP accounts (10%): Evaluates if and how easily users can access FTP and
    SFTP accounts
  • Git and SSH access (20%): Assess whether Git is integrated into the hosting service and
    if SSH access is provided

6.6
6.2

🏆 Winner
Contabo:
A hosting provider with robust performance and extensive control panel features.

Both Contabo and Gandi.net offer valuable features catering to different user needs. Contabo stands out with its high-performance hardware, including AMD EPYC 7282 processors and various SSD storage options. The provider also boasts an impressive uptime guarantee of 99.996% and free DDoS protection, making it a reliable option for users requiring performance and security. Users benefit from comprehensive control panel features that facilitate advanced server management, domain management, and automated processes. On the other hand, Gandi.net provides a simpler but effective hosting solution with unlimited aliases, forwarding, and free SSL certificates. Users who prioritize ease of use and straightforward setup for applications like WordPress may find Gandi.net more appealing. While Contabo’s offerings are on the higher end with extensive features, Gandi.net emphasizes simplicity and automated installations, appealing to non-technical users or those with basic hosting needs.

Gandi.net has its unique strong points, particularly with unlimited SSL certificates and Anycast DNS, bolstering site security and performance. The availability of automatic installations for popular applications like WordPress and Nextcloud also makes it user-friendly. However, it is more limited in terms of customization tools and scalability compared to Contabo. Gandi.net’s storage capacities and CPU/RAM offerings are good, but not as extensive, making it ideal for small to medium projects. In contrast, Contabo offers a more robust solution with additional customization options, multiple OS supports, and snapshots. While Gandi.net shines with free SSL certificates for all users, including those on starter plans, Contabo’s wide range of control panel features and high configurability suit users looking for growth and flexibility.


Free domain

No

No

Free SSL

No

Yes

Email hosting

Yes

Yes

Website builder

No

Yes

Staging environment

Yes

No

FTP & SFTP accounts

Yes

Yes

Git and SSH access

Yes

FTP only

Free backup

Yes

No

Money back guarantee

No

No
In some cases hosting providers offer different features based on various components like
a location.
As a result in rare cases the features mentioned here can differ from the ones you see on their websites.

Both providers support a range of users from beginners to experts with user-friendly website builders and WordPress staging areas. However, in terms of developer tools, both Contabo and Gandi.net offer robust options including SSH access, support for multiple programming languages, and Git for version control, thus appealing to developers looking for advanced capabilities.

Email services:

Contabo offers email hosting services, allowing users to create, manage, and secure email accounts with their domain. Customers can also set up transactional emails essential for online form submissions and notifications. Gandi.net also provides email hosting with unlimited aliases and forwarding. However, it lacks the ability to run email campaigns directly from their service. Both providers do not appear to resell third-party services like Google Workspace or Zoho. Contabo may appeal to users needing more robust email management features, whereas Gandi.net suits those looking for simple and unlimited email forwarding options.

Price

Looks at the cost-effectiveness and value for money of each platform.
Score Components:

  • Plan value (40%): What each pricing tier offers.
  • Transparency and clarity (30%): Clearness of pricing structures.
  • Flexibility of plans (20%): Range of options to suit different budgets.
  • Hidden costs (10%): Additional expenses not included in the plan.

8.3
8.5

🏆 Winner Gandi.net: Gandi.net stands out with a superior blend of features and competitive pricing for hosting plans.

Evaluating the pricing of plans among various hosting providers can be complex due to their differing pricing and renewal strategies. Additionally, certain plans require annual commitments, which adds to the difficulty of making comparisons. The prices listed are based on monthly commitments; plans requiring annual commitments are indicated. Additionally, although some providers offer identical plans for WordPress and shared hosting, we have created separate tables for each to enhance clarity.

Contabo offers a variety of hosting plans including affordable Virtual Private Servers (VPS) with options for self-management or managed services, Virtual Dedicated Servers (VDS), and Dedicated Servers. The plans range from $3.99 to €301.97 per month with extensive features such as ample storage, high traffic capacities, and a wide selection of operating systems and control panels. Gandi.net, on the other hand, focuses on web hosting plans with clearly defined options from starter to business, including free domain names and automated installations. Priced from $10 to $25 per month, Gandi.net emphasizes user-friendly features suitable for various needs, from bloggers to businesses.

N/A
Value for price:N/A
Starter Hosting Plan$10/month

Domain name included, up to 1 website, 20 GB storage, up to ~300,000 visits/month, support via email and chat

Value for price:7.5
N/A
Value for price:N/A
Advanced Hosting Plan$15/month

Domain name included, up to 5 websites, 50 GB storage, up to ~600,000 visits/month, support via email and chat

Value for price:8.0
N/A
Value for price:N/A
Pro Hosting Plan$20/month

Domain name included, up to 10 websites, 100 GB storage, up to ~1,200,000 visits/month, support via email and chat

Value for price:8.5
N/A
Value for price:N/A
Business Hosting Plan$25/month

Domain name included, 15 websites or more, 200 GB storage, up to ~5,000,000 visits/month, support via email and chat

Value for price:9.0
N/A
Value for price:N/A
Starter Hosting Plan$10/month

Domain name included, up to 1 website, 20 GB storage, up to ~300,000 visits/month, support via email and chat

Value for price:7.5
N/A
Value for price:N/A
Advanced Hosting Plan$15/month

Domain name included, up to 5 websites, 50 GB storage, up to ~600,000 visits/month, support via email and chat

Value for price:8.0
N/A
Value for price:N/A
Pro Hosting Plan$20/month

Domain name included, up to 10 websites, 100 GB storage, up to ~1,200,000 visits/month, support via email and chat

Value for price:8.5
N/A
Value for price:N/A
Business Hosting Plan$25/month

Domain name included, 15 websites or more, 200 GB storage, up to ~5,000,000 visits/month, support via email and chat

Value for price:9.0
Cloud VPS S$3.99/month

1 website, 50GB NVMe or 200GB SSD storage, 32TB traffic, 24/7 support, high customization options

Value for price:8.0
Pro Hosting Plan$20/month

Domain name included, up to 10 websites, 100 GB storage, up to ~1,200,000 visits/month, support via email and chat

Value for price:8.5
Cloud VPS M$7.99/month

1 website, 100GB NVMe or 400GB SSD storage, 32TB traffic, 24/7 support, high customization options

Value for price:8.5
Business Hosting Plan$25/month

Domain name included, 15 websites or more, 200 GB storage, up to ~5,000,000 visits/month, support via email and chat

Value for price:9.0
Cloud VPS L$14.99/month

1 website, 200GB NVMe or 800GB SSD storage, 32TB traffic, 24/7 support, high customization options

Value for price:9.0
N/A

Value for price:N/A
Cloud VPS XL$26.99/month

1 website, 400GB NVMe or 1.6TB SSD storage, 32TB traffic, 24/7 support, high customization options

Value for price:9.5
N/A

Value for price:N/A
*In some cases companies have different prices based on various components like a location.*

Enterprise plans

Gandi.net’s Business Hosting Plan offers generous resources such as up to 4 CPUs, 4GB RAM, and 200GB storage, upgradeable to 1TB. Contabo provides more varied options with their Cloud VPS and Dedicated Servers, tailored explicitly for resource-intensive applications like eCommerce stores. Businesses looking for dedicated hardware may benefit more from Contabo’s extensive offerings, while those preferring ease of scalability and inclusion of domain names might favor Gandi.net.

Contabo vs Gandi.net: Ease of setup

Evaluates the ease of setting up and migrating websites on the hosting
platform.

Score Components:

  • Site migration (25%): Assesses whether the provider offers tools for site migration,
    either automated or manual, and whether these services are free or require a fee.
  • Admin panel usability (35%): Evaluates the type of admin panel provided, such as the
    standard cPanel or a custom solution, focusing on its accessibility and user-friendliness for both
    technical and non-technical users.
  • Setup features (20%): Examines the availability and ease of use of various setup
    features, including FTP accounts, file managers, email account setup, PHPMyAdmin, and easy CDN
    configuration.
  • Help center quality (20%): Measures the quality and accessibility of the provider’s
    help center resources, including articles and tutorials.

7.4
7.9

🏆 Winner
Gandi.net:
A streamlined hosting provider offering automated website installation and a centralized interface.

When comparing the admin panels of Contabo and Gandi.net, Contabo provides a custom Control Panel that allows users to manage their VPS plans with ease. The Control Panel offers features such as server management, service upgrades, OS reinstalls, and add-on orders, all of which are accessible from a single interface. This makes it user-friendly for both technical and non-technical users, offering flexibility without overwhelming novices.

Gandi.net, on the other hand, offers a centralized interface where users can manage their domain names, hosting, and WordPress installations. This interface supports automatic installation processes for various platforms like WordPress and Prestashop. The simplicity of Gandi.net’s interface makes it particularly appealing to beginners, who can set up their websites with minimal steps. Overall, Gandi.net’s admin interface feels more streamlined and less intimidating for non-technical users compared to Contabo’s more feature-rich panel.

When it comes to migration tools, neither Contabo nor Gandi.net explicitly advertise automated migration solutions. However, Contabo provides managed services that offer expert help for server setup, installation, and management, which may include assisting with site migration at an additional cost. Gandi.net does not mention migration tools but offers comprehensive customer support that might include assistance with manual site migration via email, chat, or support tickets.


Evaluating the help center resources, Contabo offers a range of tutorials and a FAQ section to guide users through various tasks. Their support is available via tickets and phone, backed by detailed API documentation and a server status page. Gandi.net, offering explanations and step-by-step guides for their services, supports users through chat, email, and support tickets available in multiple languages. Both hosting providers offer well-rounded support systems, with Gandi.net slightly edging out due to its multilingual support and real-time chat options during support availability.

User management

Assesses the platforms’ capabilities in managing user roles, permissions, and
accessibility.

Score Components:

  • Role customization (40%): Flexibility in creating and defining user roles and
    permissions.
  • Ease of management (30%): User interface and tools for managing users.
  • Access control (20%): Effectiveness of access control measures for different user
    levels.
  • Scalability (10%): Ability to manage a growing number of users efficiently.

5.0
8.3

🏆 Winner: Gandi.net: A superior option for comprehensive user management features and flexibility.

When comparing Contabo and Gandi.net in terms of managing user roles, permissions, and accessibility, Gandi.net offers more extensive and flexible user management capabilities. Gandi.net includes tools to delegate permissions using user management tools or shared links. As the administrator, you maintain full control over the data, providing a more granular level of management. Contabo, though robust, focuses more on simplifying user management by allowing for the authorization of individuals to specific server permissions but lacks the detailed role flexibility seen with Gandi.net.

Contabo’s user interface in the Control Panel is user-friendly, providing a streamlined way to manage personal information, security settings, and server permissions. Features like upgrading VPS, moving to another region, and managing add-ons are easily accessible. Gandi.net, on the other hand, integrates the Nextcloud admin interface, allowing detailed role assignments through a familiar layout for those used to Nextcloud. This makes it effective for users who prioritize control and detailed user management within a self-hosted environment.

Access control is a critical component, and both providers show their strengths. Contabo enforces important security measures such as mandatory Two-Factor Authentication and free DDoS protection for all plans, which are significant for maintaining security across multiple users. Gandi.net doesn’t lag behind, offering unlimited aliases, forwarding options, and SSL certificates, along with Anycast DNS with DNSSEC. Its robust security protocols alongside user management tools make it capable of efficiently managing a growing number of users.

Gandi.net User Roles Table

Role Description Access highlights
Administrator Full control over data and file sharing permissions. Manage user roles, data access, and permissions.

Contabo User Roles Table

Role Description Access highlights
Authorized User Granted specific permissions for server management. Update server settings, manage certain server functionalities

Customer support

Evaluates the quality, availability, and scope of the customer support offered by the
hosting provider.

Score Components:

  • Support communication channels (30%): Measures the variety of customer support types
    provided (live chat, chatbot, email, phone, etc.)
  • Availability (20%): Assesses the availability hours for each channel, including 24/7
    support options.
  • Technical support quality (30%): Assesses whether the provider offers comprehensive
    technical support, including hardware upgrades (e.g., HDD to SSD), software installations, and web
    server configuration changes.
  • Enterprise support (20%): Checks if there are dedicated or priority support services
    for enterprise-level customers.

7.1
8.8

🏆 Winner Gandi.net: Gandi.net provides a range of support channels and availability that meet various customer needs efficiently.


Phone support







Live chat support







Chatbot







Email/ticket support







Enterprise support
(dedicated agent, priority support)






Contabo and Gandi.net offer various customer support options, but their availability and comprehensiveness differ significantly. Contabo provides phone and email support, although its response time can vary, and it lacks live chat support. Contabo’s support hours are limited, and while they offer a support ticket system and FAQs, they don’t offer 24-hour support, which may be a drawback for users needing immediate assistance outside specified hours.

Meanwhile, Gandi.net excels in customer support by offering 24-hour availability five days a week, and 24/7 technical support for critical issues via email. Gandi.net also provides live chat support and a dedicated account manager upon request, making them highly accessible. This wider range of support options ensures that users can get help whenever they need it, affirming Gandi.net’s superior support services.

Contabo vs Gandi.net: User feedback

Contabo
10 reviews
3.3 out of 5 stars
Gandi.net
15 reviews
3.7 out of 5 stars

Contabo’s hosting services are highly appreciated for their affordability and powerful VPS plans, which can handle demanding software and complex tasks efficiently. Users find the setup process relatively easy and often compliment the cost-effectiveness and reliability of the service, despite occasional downtime reported by some. However, criticisms are directed towards their customer support, which has been described as slow and unresponsive at times, and their user interface could benefit from modern improvements. Frequent downtimes without notice and issues with specific regional servers have also been noted as areas needing improvement.

User feedback for this hosting provider is generally positive, with users appreciating the easy and straightforward domain registration process, a user-friendly interface, and competitive pricing on unique domain extensions. Customers value the company’s focus on privacy protection and steady performance without pushy upselling tactics. However, some users have experienced significant issues, such as paying for already-owned domains without receiving refunds, instances of confusing billing processes, and a lack of sufficient customer support. While some find the user interface to be intuitive, others criticize it for being cluttered and difficult to navigate, especially on mobile devices.

Contabo vs Gandi.net: FAQ

Which platform is better suited for hosting WordPress websites?


Gandi.net is better suited for hosting WordPress websites, offering automated WordPress installation and easy management. It provides specific WordPress hosting plans, making it easier for users to set up and manage their WordPress sites. Contabo lacks dedicated WordPress hosting plans, focusing more on VPS and dedicated hosting solutions.

Are both platforms suitable for beginners?


Gandi.net is more suitable for beginners due to its user-friendly interface and automated installation processes for applications like WordPress. It is designed to cater to non-technical users with features like easy setup and unlimited SSL certificates. Contabo, while powerful, may be less beginner-friendly due to its complex setup and focus on VPS and dedicated hosting.

Which platform offers better customer support?


Gandi.net offers better customer support, providing 24-hour availability on weekdays, live chat support, and a dedicated account manager upon request. Contabo, on the other hand, offers phone and email support but lacks live chat support and has limited support hours. The comprehensiveness and availability of Gandi.net’s support options make it a superior choice.

Which hosting service offers more scalability options for growing websites?


Contabo offers more scalability options for growing websites, allowing seamless VPS package upgrades without sacrificing availability or uptime. It provides private networking, additional IP configurations, and more flexible scaling options. Gandi.net offers scalable plans but is limited in flexibility and frequency of upgrades compared to Contabo.

Which service is more suitable for hosting a high-traffic website?


Contabo is more suitable for hosting high-traffic websites, offering dedicated servers with scalable resources and powerful VPS options backed by AMD EPYC processors. It provides extensive global data centers and high-performance infrastructure, making it ideal for handling high traffic. Gandi.net, while reliable, is better suited for smaller-scale projects.

    The making of this blog

    We followed a clear, step-by-step process to write and research this article.

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